Although it’s been 65 years since the ruling of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) was handed down and school segregation was declared unconstitutional, several studies have shown that segregation is, again, becoming a situation that requires our attention (Hilbert, 2018; Verbruggen, 2018). However, there is a limited number of articles that focus solely on the variables that lead to school segregation and ways in which to integrate school communities.
This article will review literature that depicts the factors leading to segregation and propose ways to counteract segregation while improving integration among schools and communities. This review will examine court rulings, zoning policies, the theory of white-flight, and charter schools. This paper will conclude with implications, practices, and suggestions for further research.
History of Segregation within Education
Through Brown, desegregation took root and students were bused from one side of town to the next, schools grew in racial diversity, students of color gained access to improved academic opportunities, and America was finally taking a stand for minorities (Archbald, Hurwitz, & Hurwitz, 2018; Hilbert, 2018; Onwuachi-Willig, 2019). Even though actions were being taken to reunite students, busing minority students to white neighborhoods placed great burdens on families of color. Rather than rebuild inner city schools, policy makers closed school buildings and communities lost valuable resources (Dyett High School RFP, 2015). Nonetheless, for the first time in history, students of color were making true academic gains (Hilbert, 2018; Onwuachi-Willig, 2019). In spite of the progress, this seems to be the finale of desegregation for over the next 30 years, the federal government began to dismantle segregation laws and ultimately turned over segregation policing authority to state and local governments which has resulted in the resegregation of public schools (Hilbert, 2018; Robinson, 2018).
The Importance of Diversity
Just as Byrnes (2015) illustrates the importance of diversity within nature, so too is diversity required within our schools. It’s through diversity people begin to break down stereotypes and build relationships that embody empathy and understanding of individual differences (Hilbert, 2018). Higher levels of diversity within schools have been shown to close achievement gaps and provide a more equitable education for students of color (Hilbert, 2018; Verbruggen, 2018), yet with federal laws now removed, school board policies are dictated by a disproportionate majority rule of white voices (Diem, Frankenberg, & Cleary, 2015), leaving minorities to suffer the consequences. There is a particular gap in the literature when it comes to school board policies and funding of educational systems. A suggestion of more research in this area is required to fully understand the make-up of public-school systems and how they operate.
Necessary Vocabulary
Several authors expand on the definitions surrounding segregation in schools. Segregation is the idea that people of different races should be separated. This idea led to schools in which students of different backgrounds and races were educated in different environments. Before Brown v Board of Education ruling, schools located in communities of color suffered from underfunding and unsatisfactory education outcomes. To address these deficiencies, desegregation became the new policy, which focuses on balancing the percentage of racial groups within a school setting (Coughlan, 2018; Siegel-Hawley, Bridges, & Shields, 2017). Yet, as we see from the 1970’s, even though schools were desegregated the students within the schools were still separated into race identified classrooms (Hilbert, 2018). Integration is the idea that students from different racial backgrounds will integrate and mix among themselves, sharing ideas and experiences, building and collaborating together for a more enriched future (Coughlan, 2018; Siegel-Hawley et al., 2017). Therefore, integration should be the goal set by society (Hilbert, 2018; Siegel-Hawley et al., 2017).
Court Rulings that Impact Education
By examining the rulings made by the courts, researchers are able to capture a greater understanding of the history of education as well as the mindset of society. Education didn’t start with the whole person or community in mind. If we look back to the case of Dred Scott v Sanford (1856), the Court ruled that African Americans were not considered parts of society, neither to be given respect nor rights. Thirty-one years after the end of the Civil War, society and the courts rule on Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) creating the formation of segregated schools within communities, with the idea of “separate but equal” being considered adequate social justice (Miyasaki, 2015). Though, almost sixty years later, it was the ruling of Brown v. Board of Education that vanquished segregation and ruled that separate educational environments created unequal opportunities for students of color (Hilbert, 2018; Onwuachi-Willig, 2019). It is through these court rulings, policies surrounding education are issued.
Citizenship through the courts. Many scholars see Brown as the first step toward full citizenship for African Americans (Hilbert, 2018; Lipman, 2018). Even though a momentous achievement was seen among the civil rights activists, almost immediately after the ruling, educational stake holders began rethinking Brown, creating a desegregated learning climate based on racial numbers in buildings rather than actual integration in classrooms (Hilbert, 2018; Siegel-Hawley et al., 2017).
Early choice programs did not fulfil the promise of Brown. In 1968, Green v. County School Board of New Kent County, the courts shared their disproval of choice programs, baring witness to White schools that claimed to open their doors to students of color yet denying them access based on administrative issues (Amsterdam, 2017). It seems as though, schools have never been truly integrated and are now rapidly returning back to segregated learning environments (Dorsey, 2013; Joyner & Marsh, 2011).
Purpose of Education
There seem to be little evidence in regard to the definition of education. However, Hilbert (2018) and Miyasaki (2015) agree that the full purpose of education is citizenship. Through the sharing of resources, students, from all walks of life, have access to equal opportunities, experiences, and exposure to society values. According to Dyett High School, one of Chicago’s public schools that originally closed to lack of funding and later reopened due to outrage by the local community, writes the purpose of education:
… is to prepare young people to deeply understand and study their social and physical reality so they can enter the global stage of history as actors in transforming their world. . . . Education should value and build on the young people of Bronzeville, their culture, languages, experiences, history, wisdom, and elders to enable them to know who they are, where they come from, where they are going, and to love their community and themselves. (Dyett High School RFP, 2015)
According to Klitmoller (2016), students’ ideas and views in regard to school reform is usually not considered by administration or policy makers, and therefore schools lack an important piece of collaboration. If schools are to engage the fullness of its people, it would seem best to involve the study body in pertinent points of decision making (Krashen, 2016). Many authors claim the idea of education is not simply to gain skills required for a particular career set, but also, to learn about oneself and community (Krashen, 2016; Lipman, 2018).
Factors That Influence Resegregation
Attendance Zones
The literature provides several examples of factors that influence resegregation. It is quite common to see higher levels of segregation within elementary schools, which have smaller class sizes and therefore require more neighborhood schools, compared to middle and even high schools, which encompass larger zoning boundaries (Coughlan, 2018; Siegel-Hawley et al., 2017). Yet even with these considerations, there is significant research that illustrates how school boundaries are drawn to isolate a particular race, which is seen in the study by Joyner & March (2011), in Wayne County, North Carolina. This segregated school, Goldsboro High School, experiences fewer highly-qualified teachers and higher teacher turn over rates. This high rate of teacher turnover also contributes to discipline problems and lower academic student performance (Joyner & Marsh, 2011). The weakness of this study lies in the fact that the data is eight years old, however, the importance of the information it conveys cannot be over looked. Furthermore, updated research and similar findings need to be evaluated.
School Choice
The reverence of literature that shapes educational policies in regard to school choice is highly valuable. The following articles feature evidence that examines school choice and diversity. With school choice and demographic changes, the student body of schools are inevitably going to change (Coughlan, 2018). Several studies examine how the demographics of a population can change the dynamic of neighborhood schools. As Barton, Cohen (2019) and Coughlan (2018) point out, an assumption can be made that as the demographic of an area changes and becomes more diverse, so should the school environment. Yet, due to school choice programs, families are able to “opt out” of attending locally zoned schools and are choosing to attend charter and magnet schools or removing themselves completely from public school districts and attending private schools. Therefore, neighborhoods are becoming more integrated while our schools are not.
White flight creates segregation within schools. This opting out procedure due to racial and socioeconomic status is known as “white-flight” and occurs when white families choose to attend a charter, magnet, or private school rather than their locally home zoned school (Barton & Cohen, 2019; Coughlan, 2018; Hilbert, 2018). These researchers make a compelling argument against “white flight”, yet there is limited data show casing private school racial statistics. The idea behind “white flight” is that white, middle- and upper-class families will use this technique to opt out of integrated schools, but there may be evidence to suggest that families of color use state vouchers to opt out of public schools and also attend private schools. More research needs to be done in regard to private school vouchers and then data can be compared with the findings of other studies (Gooden, Jabbar, & Torres, 2016).
Students of color are making academic gains in charter schools. Even though “white-flight” is a significant problem seen with school choice, some studies have shown that students who attend charter schools are more prepared for college courses than those who attend traditional schools (Adzima, 2017). Adzima (2017) points to the substantial fact that a high level of students of color attend charter schools and are therefore able to enjoy more advanced academic opportunities than home zoned students. This author sheds light on the importance of charter schools and how school districts could use research when making educational policies.
School choice creates competition among schools. An essential argument for school choice programs is that the program will offer a variety of schools for families to choose from as well as increase competition between schools (Archbald et al., 2018; Schwartz, Voicu, & Horn, 2014).
However, a qualitative study conducted by Rabovsky (2011), disagrees with the idea of school competition and states that school administrators are in no way competitive when it comes to students who choose to leave or transfer in to new schools. The author states schools see no particular benefit to receiving transferable students and therefore do not base school improvement on those numbers. If school administrators are not using school choice options to better their schools, families of local schools may need to inquire as to the “why” of this situation.
Low-income families may lack complete information to make educated choices. One concern in regard to school choice is the idea that low income families will not have access to crucial information in regard to options of schools and therefore will not be able to make educated decisions. Yet to many political stake holders, the fact that magnet schools have shown a higher degree of racial diversity and student achievement than traditional home zoned schools, believe the positive outcome of magnet schools outweighs the disadvantage of some low-income families failing to receive accurate information (Rabovsky, 2011). This research is a helpful tool to be used by local communities who may see the need to use resources such as public libraries to offer information to low-income families on school options.
Advantages to Segregation
Shared Understanding of Experiences
Even though we can all agree, the inequality of segregation is uncivilized and unacceptable, there were positive aspects that were shared while schools were still segregated. Before desegregation, students of color were taught by teachers of color, therefore there was a shared understanding of experiences (Hilbert, 2018). Today, students of color feel a disconnect within their classrooms simply because the majority of teachers that lead them do not recognize, nor share similar background experiences (Voight, Hanson, & Adekanye, 2015).
Community Schools
Segregated schools, particularly those located within older neighborhoods have established communities. These communities use schools not only for educational purposes but also as a community building, housing after school programs and summer activities. Many schools closed after desegregation and this led to the loss of several vital community resources (Lipman, 2018; Siegel-Hawley et al., 2017).
Academic Performance
According to Hemmerechts, Echeverria Vicente, Agirdag, & Kavadias (2018), not all students of color who currently attend segregated schools perform poorly. Some students who attend these schools even outperform students who attend other, more elite, academic programs. Some activists even argue that it’s racist to suggest that African American students need to be housed with white students to learn effectively (Hilbert, 2018). Nonetheless, the argument of integration is not that people of color need to be integrated to learn effectively, but that diversity benefits all students in the goal of becoming good citizens. The goal of education is overall population benefit, not simply high performance among groups (Coughlan, 2018; Hilbert, 2018). Therefore, it is imperative for policy makers to use the priceless information provided through this literature to improve school reform by bridging the gap of teacher/student disconnect and community resources.
Ways to Counteract Segregation
Even with such apparent positive aspects seen throughout history, as well as current trends, negative impacts caused by segregation cannot be overlooked. Hilbert (2018) and Onwuachi-Willig (2019) both point to harmful stereotypes as well as underfunded school buildings and programs as a direct relationship to schools that have less integration and greater segregated bodies. Lipman (2018), reminds his readers to examine the actual cause behind segregation, which is not a freedom of choice to choose to gather among one’s race but a conscious isolation, as well as a lack of resources that are afforded to another race, namely in U.S. history, whites. Overall, segregation, based on racial and socioeconomic standings, has left communities of color with a disadvantage and therefore as a society we should strive to benefit all people (Coughlan, 2018; Hilbert, 2018; Lipman, 2018).
Rezoning Boundaries
Joyner & Marsh (2011) conduct a quantitative study in regard to zoning boundaries. Through the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), the researchers rezoned a highly segregated Wayne County school district into an integrated school zone. Goldsboro High School experienced segregation due to racial zoning boundaries. This study represented families of Goldsboro High School in a Title VI complaint and contributes to an investigation by the Office of Civil Rights of the U.S. Department of Education. The study examines a large population and cites the school is segregated due to zone boundaries. This research supports other authors’ findings in regard to deliberate segregation zoning policies. The only disadvantage to this study is in the age of the data. Further research needs to be examined in regard to particular school zone boundary issues.
Managed Choice Options
Another author, Hilbert (2018), shares information on “managed choice” options which claims to increase school diversity through a culmination of magnet schools and home zoned boundaries. Berkeley Unified School District uses a combination of neighborhood zones and school choice to ensure school diversity. The plan attaches diversity scores not to students but to neighborhoods using information from household income, parent education levels, and racial ethnicity. Families are encouraged to choose several schools and depending on how it affects the demographics of the school area, are then placed within a one of their preferred schools. This type of choice option shows high levels of integration among students as well as academic achievement, particularly among low income communities of color (Hilbert, 2018). This article supports the previously mentioned study by Joyner & Marsh (2011), stating desegregation, with high levels of diversity and integration, are possible through zoning techniques. The appeal to this literature is the fact that this school district has utilized this technique for two decades and has maintained diversity (Hilbert, 2018).
True Integration
Even though school choice does show to indirectly promote segregated home zoned schools (Coughlan, 2018; Hilbert, 2018), there is supporting research that charter and magnet schools can provide a positive impact to attending students (Adzima, 2017; Schwartz, Voicu, & Horn, 2014). Yet, there will always be a need to reexamine the idea of school choice. Some literature suggests this type of choice is only used to segregate low income students of color from other students (Lipman, 2018). Segregation is driven by racism, which is in itself a choice. However, integration reduces racism, and therefore we must look to true integration to counteract segregated environments (Coughlan, 2018; Hilbert, 2018).
Through the reformation of classrooms, curriculum, and diversified school administration, true integration is a possible outcome for public schools. Research has shown that students who are educated in an integrated environment as children and young adults, are more prone to live and raise their own families in more integrated neighborhoods as adults (Hilbert, 2018). Other authors have pointed to benefits of integration which include: improved academic and critical thinking skills, less prejudice views, a reduction in residential segregation, and overall an increase in parental involvement within schools while stabling communities (Joyner & Marsh, 2011). With the insight provided through this literature review, policy makers and families have the tools required to begin making educated decisions in regard to ensuring local home zoned schools are more diversified and integrated.
Conclusion
This article examines several theories surrounding school segregation. We have reviewed vocabulary, looked at the negative effects of segregation, viewed the positive side to desegregation and welcomed the importance of integration. Overall, society is trying to move forward, bridging the gap of differences, yet researchers continue to shed light on social injustice due to racially driven school zone boundaries and inequalities suffered by minority groups and communities of color. It’s through this awareness that we able to decide how we change the course of learning (Parkhouse & Massaro, 2019)
Therefore, let us look toward a brighter tomorrow and recommend more research in areas such as creating new attendance zone boundaries (Hilbert, 2018), enlisting accountable measures for magnet school data (Adzima, 2017), and preparing educators to teach in a diversified, integrated way (Hilbert, 2018). The hope is that educators will continue to ensure integration among cultures and communities to prepare students to be effective citizens of society.
References
Adzima, K. A. (2017). College readiness: Are California charter school students better prepared? Economic Affairs, 37(2), 182–196. https://doi- org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1111/ecaf.12229
Amsterdam, D. (2017). Toward the resegregation of southern
schools: African American
suburbanization and historical erasure in Freeman v. Pitts. History of Education Quarterly, 57(4), 451–479. https://doi-org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1017/heq.2017.28
Archbald, D., Hurwitz, A.,
& Hurwitz, F. (2018). Charter schools, parent choice, and segregation: A longitudinal study of the growth
of charters and changing enrollment patterns
in five school districts over 26 years. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 26(21/22), 1–39.
https://doi-org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.14507/epaa.26.2921
Barton, M. S., & Cohen, I. F. A. (2019). How is gentrification associated with changes in the academic performance of neighborhood schools? Social Science Research, 80, 230–242. https://doi-org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2019.01.005
Byrnes, W. (2015). The importance of diversity. Journal of African American Studies, 19(3), 264–278. https://doi-org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1007/s12111-015-9305-1
Coughlan, R. W. (2018). Divergent trends in neighborhood and school segregation in the age of school choice. Peabody Journal of Education (0161956X), 93(4), 349–366. https://doi-org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1080/0161956X.2018.1488385
Diem, S., Frankenberg, E., & Cleary, C. (2015). Factors that influence school board policy making: The political context of student diversity in urban-suburban districts. Educational Administration Quarterly, 51(5), 712–752. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost- com.proxy1.ncu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1079298&site=eds-live
Dorsey, D. N. T. (2013). Segregation 2.0: The new generation of school segregation in the 21st century. Education & Urban Society, 45(5), 533. Retrieved from https://search- ebscohost- com.proxy1.ncu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edb&AN=89726613&site=eds-live
Dyett High School RFP. (2015). The coalition to revitalize Dyett High School. Retrieved from http://cps.edu/SiteCollectionDocuments/DyettRFP _DyettGlobalAndGreenTechnologyHSProposal.pdf
Gooden, M. A., Jabbar, H., & Torres, J. . M. S. (2016). Race and school vouchers: Legal, historical, and political contexts. Peabody Journal of Education (0161956X), 91(4), 522. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost- com.proxy1.ncu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edb&AN=117876789&site=eds-live
Hemmerechts, K., Echeverria Vicente, N. J., Agirdag, O., & Kavadias, D. (2018). Social capital and mathematics achievement offFourth and fifth grade children in segregated primary schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 23(3), 209–229. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost- com.proxy1.ncu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1202868&site=eds-live
Hilbert, J. (2018). School desegregation 2.0: What is required to finally integrate america’s public schools. Northwestern Journal of Human Rights, 16(1), 92–130. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost- com.proxy1.ncu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=131055089&site=eds-live
Joyner, A. M., & Marsh, B. (2011). Institutionalizing disparities in education: A case study of segregation in Wayne County, North Carolina high schools. InterActions: UCLA Journal of Education & Information Studies, 7(1), 1–23. Retrieved from https://search- ebscohost- com.proxy1.ncu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=60588133&site=ehost-live
Krashen, S. (2016). The purpose of education, free voluntary reading, and dealing with the impact of poverty. School Libraries Worldwide, 22(1), 1–7. https://doi- org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.14265.22.1.001
Klitmøller, J. (2016). Educational practice, student experience, and the purpose of education—a critique of ‘Pedagogy in Practice.’ Oxford Review of Education, 42(6), 646–660. https://doi-org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1080/03054985.2016.1200023
Lipman, P. (2018). Segregation, the “Black Spatial Imagination,” and radical social transformation. Democracy & Education, 26(2). Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost- com.proxy1.ncu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1194476&site=eds-live
Miyasaki, R. (2015). Asleep at the school-bus wheel: The success and failure of school desegregation in San Jose unified school district and how to save it. Golden Gate University Law Review, 45(2), 149–172. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost- com.proxy1.ncu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=108515253&site=eds-live
Onwuachi-Willig, A. (2019). Reconceptualizing the harms of discrimination: How Brown v. Board of Education helped to further white supremacy. Virginia Law Review, 105(2), 343–369. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost- com.proxy1.ncu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=135941287&site=eds-live
Parkhouse, H., & Massaro, V. R. (2019). “Calling Out” in class: Degrees of candor in addressing social injustices in racially homogenous and heterogeneous U.S. history classrooms. The Journal of Social Studies Research, 43(1), 17–31. https://doi- org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1016/j.jssr.2018.01.004
Rabovsky, T. (2011). Deconstructing school choice: Problem schools or problem students? Public Administration Review, 71(1), 87–95. https://doi- org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2010.02309.x
Robinson, K. J. (2018). Restructuring the elementary and secondary education act’s approach to equity. Minnesota Law Review, 103(2), 915–998. Retrieved from https://search- ebscohostcom.proxy1.ncu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=134175410&site=e ds-live
Schwartz, A. E., Voicu, I., & Horn, K. M. (2014). Do choice schools break the link between public schools and property values? Evidence from house prices in New York City. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 49, 1–10. https://doi- org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2014.08.002
Siegel-Hawley, G., Bridges, K., & Shields, T. J. (2017). Solidifying segregation or promoting diversity? School closure and rezoning in an urban district. Educational Administration Quarterly, 53(1), 107. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost- com.proxy1.ncu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edb&AN=120371191&site=eds-live
Verbruggen, R. (2018). The resegregation myth. National Review, 70(4), 28–31. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost- com.proxy1.ncu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=tsh&AN=128020224&site=eds-live
Voight, A., Hanson, T., O, M. M., & Adekanye, L. (2015). The racial school climate gap: Within-school disparities in students’ experiences of safety, support, and connectedness. American Journal of Community Psychology, 56(3/4), 252–267. https://doi-org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1007/s10464-015-9751-x